Innovation Lab For Small Scale Irrigation

Innovation Lab For Small Scale Irrigation

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Enhancing Groundwater Governance through Experimental Games in Ghana

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by Emmanuel Obuobie*, Claudia Ringer*, Hagar El Didi*, Wei Zhang*

Thousands of farmers living in the Keta and Anloga districts of Ghana depend on groundwater from the Keta strip for producing vegetables and other food crops for consumption and income generation. The Keta strip lies between a salty lagoon (Keta lagoon) and the sea (Gulf of Guinea), along the East Coast of Ghana. The two districts fall within the dry equatorial climatic region, which is the driest part of Ghana. The main occupation of the people are farming, fishing and trading. Farming is done all year-round, using groundwater from shallow unconfined aquifers within depths of about 15 m. Crops grown include carrots, tomatoes, pepper, okra, onion, lettuce, potatoes, maize and cassava. Farming in the Keta and Anloga districts is impossible without irrigation because of relatively low rainfall (about 800 mm), a long dry season of about six months, long dry spells within the rainfall season, high annual evaporation (about 1800 mm) and sandy soils.

An irrigator drawing water from a well to irrigate her crops at Whuti – Anloga district, Ghana (Photo credit: Emmanuel Obuobie)

Farmers in the two districts abstract groundwater through large diameter open concrete lined wells and small diameter (2-4 inches) piped tube wells, to irrigate farm sizes between 0.05 and 1 hectares. The groundwater is recharged mainly from rainfall. The recharge rate is relatively high (estimated at about 20% of the annual rainfall). Some of the key challenges that groundwater irrigators are dealing with are declining groundwater tables, insufficient freshwater during the peak of the dry season (February/March) due to low groundwater tables and high evaporation, and saltwater intrusion; all of these impede crop productivity. Most farmers cope by reducing the volume of water used for irrigation but others cope by developing multiple wells for abstracting more water and relocating wells with salty water to locations with freshwater. There are no functioning institutions that support farmer collaboration on water resources; instead farmers operate as individuals. This brings into question the sustainability of groundwater irrigation in the Keta and Anloga districts.

Source: Figure 3 in: Duku et al. (2022).

In December 2022, an intervention in the form of an experimental groundwater game, followed by community discussions of lessons learnt from the game was implemented in 10 communities in the two districts, to improve awareness of the importance of resource governance, with the expectation of enhancing collective action toward more sustainable use and management of groundwater resources, and ultimately to sustain the livelihoods of farmers. The activity was funded by USAID through the Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) project and implemented by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), CSIR-Water Research Institute, the University for Development Studies and the University of Ghana.

In each of the communities, three sets of groundwater games were played by groups of men and women irrigators separately. Each group accessed water from a common source, cultivated crops of their choice and farmers made individual decisions on farm size and number of plots cultivated. It was assumed that only the farm size cultivated had an effect on the volume of groundwater used for simplicity. In the first round of the game, farmers made decisions on farm size without discussing with other members of their group (no communication); in the second round, farmers discussed cultivation ideas with their group members but made individual decision on cultivation. In the last round of the game, farmers communicated within their groups and elected to make rules to govern the farm size cultivated by each farmer and by extension the groundwater resources withdrawn, with sanctions for those farmers who did not comply with the rules (communication with group-elected rules). The game was followed with a debriefing session that included the larger community. The group discussion focused on the sharing of lessons from the groundwater game and farmers’ practical experiences on groundwater management.

Three months after implementing the intervention, an endline survey was conducted in the ten communities and the data were compared to that of a baseline survey, which was conducted prior to the game intervention, to evaluate the effects of the intervention on the communities understanding and management of groundwater resources.

In the baseline survey preceding the games, farmers indicated that, there were no rules or arrangements for managing groundwater in their communities. Irrigators could cultivate as many plots as they wanted and have as many groundwater wells as they could afford, with little or no consideration for the long-term sustainability of the groundwater and their livelihoods. Generally, communities held the belief that groundwater could not be permanently depleted and therefore were strongly opposed to making rules to regulate when and how much to abstract.  

Community debriefing meeting at Woe – Anloga district, Ghana (Photo credit: Emmanuel Obuobie)

Preliminary results from the endline survey show limited actions in response to the intervention at the community level, such as the establishment of institutions or rules on how much groundwater to abstract and when. However, there was an observed improvement in the attendance of community meetings for discussing community development issues including on water, health and hygiene; and improvement in participation in communal labour for cleaning communal facilities and places such as markets, beaches and drains. In addition, communities recalled learning through the game about the depletable nature of groundwater and the need to manage groundwater use. They understood the importance of adopting practices to help manage water use. Community beliefs shifted away from rejection of rules to govern groundwater use (at baseline) to understanding the need for collective action to manage the shared resource, though some communities still maintained that rules would be difficult to establish and enforce. Comparatively, several changes could be observed at the individual level. Actions reported by individual farmers included a reduction in plot size or number of farm plots cultivated, a reduction in number of wells on individual farms; a reduction in cropping intensity, and a reduction in the number of hours irrigated for every round of irrigation.

It might well take several more months or even years to see the full impact of the groundwater intervention. This is not surprising given how long it takes to change long-held understandings and beliefs of how groundwater systems operate. One thing is clear however: we cannot ensure sustainable groundwater-supported livelihoods without changing mental models and the way we develop and manage groundwater in this part of Ghana or anywhere else in the world.

  1. Senior Research Scientist, Water Research Institute – Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana ↩︎
  2. Director, Natural Resources and Resilience – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA ↩︎
  3. Senior Research Analyst; Natural Resources and Resilience – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA ↩︎
  4. Senior Research Fellow; Natural Resources and Resilience – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA ↩︎

ILSSI knowledge sharing workshop in Ethiopia

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by Melkamu Derseh, International Livestock Research Institute

On 25 May 2023, ILSSI organized a workshop in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia to share findings and lessons from the ten years of research for development work under the program. Attended by more than 80 participants from within and abroad, keynote speakers included ILRI’s Director General Representative to Ethiopia, State Minister for Irrigation and Lowlands, and representative to the USAID Ethiopia mission. 

The workshop covered sessions on irrigated fodder development, watershed management and groundwater governance for SSI, lessons from public-private sector engagements in scaling SSI technologies, and emerging issues in farmer-led irrigation. Presentations on research results were followed by panel discussions, question and answer and reflections from participants. In addition, graduate fellows sponsored by the program displayed poster presentations of their research results. The deliberations highlighted strong evidence that SSI is an essential gateway to intensification and building resilience in the smallholder system. The results also highlighted the importance of groundwater governance to sustainably use limited water resources. Creating better enabling environments and incentives for private sector investment in SSI were found to be important priority areas that need the attention of relevant stakeholders.

As part of the presentations, two video documentaries, the first about engagements with dairy cooperatives through irrigated fodder development, and the second covering lessons from groundwater governance interventions, were presented. The documentary on ILSSI’s engagement with dairy cooperatives provided evidence on how the research for development intervention impacted the livelihood of dairy producers in the project sites. In the video, cooperative chairs narrate the challenges they faced in accessing better feed for their livestock and market for their produce. Through the ILSSI interventions, the capacity of the cooperative increased and members were able to access technologies to produce and use irrigated fodder. This has increased the confidence of farmers in the cooperative, with membership and milk collection increasing five to eightfold. The cooperatives were able to fulfill basic facilities to create good market linkages for their farm produce, which was a key pull factor for farmers to adopt irrigated fodder. The documentary shows that apart from milk production and marketing, the cooperatives were able to embark on producing forage seed/planting materials for sale to the local market, thereby diversifying their incomes and filling the local demand for forage seeds/planting materials.

The second video on groundwater governance narrates the attitude change that ILSSI intervention brought about in a district where groundwater has been used for vegetable production. Before the intervention, the communities in that district were using groundwater without any consideration for crop water requirements and safe extraction limits to the water resource. Groundwater management trainings allowed the communities to realize the importance of collective actions, with members drafting bylaws and abiding by them to manage and wisely use their water resources. The irrigators now believe they have made the right decisions and would like to see regulatory bylaws enforced beyond their communities.        

Unlocking the potential of irrigation for improved nutrition in Ethiopia

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Kaleab Baye, Associate Professor, Center for Food Science and Nutrition, Addis Ababa University and ILSSI collaborator on irrigation-nutrition linkages

Claudia Ringler, Director, Natural Resources and Resilience, International Food Policy Research Institute, ILSSI collaborator and co-lead NEXUS Gains

Poor nutrition threatens health, exacerbates inequalities, affects economic productivity, and traps countries like Ethiopia in a vicious cycle of poverty. About 38% of children below the age of five in the country are too short for their age (stunted). This means that these children live in an environment that impairs their physical and cognitive growth potential. The impairment often begins at conception, as mothers’ diets can also be poor, affecting not only their health but also the growth of the fetus in the womb.

To address the pressing problem of malnutrition, the Ethiopian government has developed numerous policies and programs. Most of these programs aim to increase agricultural production and productivity to ensure year-round access to food. They are often complemented by nutrition education programs aimed at influencing the dietary habits of the population. In practice, however, these goals are not always congruent, as evidenced by repeated complaints from recipients of nutrition education who say, “We now know what a healthy diet is, but where are the foods that allow us to practice what we learn”.

A healthy diet is broadly defined as a diet that provides adequate energy and is safe and diverse. The diet should not only consist of staple foods but should also include health-promoting fruits and vegetables. However, studies from Ethiopia consistently show that the diet consists mainly of cereals and is affected by seasonality, with more limited food availability in the dry season. Despite a significant increase in agricultural production over the past decade, production remains largely rain-fed, seasonal, and cereal grain-dependent.

Irrigation can enable the production of high-value, nutritious foods such as fruits and vegetables that require higher amounts and more frequent water. Fodder irrigation is also emerging in the country and could help mediate recurrent livestock death linked to droughts. Although well-designed small-scale irrigation programs have the potential to increase income and productivity and bridge seasonal production gaps, they are not yet sufficiently developed.

The potential benefits of well-designed irrigation systems are recognized in both regional and national policies. The African Union’s “Common Position on Food Systems” and Ethiopia’s “Food System Commitment and Position Statement Vision 2030: Transforming Ethiopia’s Food System” recognize irrigation as a solution that will transform the future, a “game changer”. The launch of a new Ministry on Irrigation and Lowlands in 2021 has further increased the role of the sector in Ethiopia’s national development strategy.

What can be learned from current small-scale irrigation programs in Ethiopia?

A series of studies evaluating small-scale irrigation programs in Ethiopia’s Amhara region have shown that small-scale irrigation helps fill seasonal food gaps, improves household food security, and prevents acute forms of child malnutrition. Irrigation has also improved the resilience of farming households to major weather shocks in Ethiopia.

Small-scale irrigation has also helped increase the production of vegetables and fruits; it has increased vegetable consumption among women but not children. This suggests that increased production does not always lead to increased consumption and underscores the need to identify factors that may hinder children’s vegetable consumption.

By taking advantage of the current policy environment aimed at transforming food systems through a nutrition-focused approach, the nutritional impact of small-scale irrigation can be significantly increased.

Looking to the future: putting missing foods on the table

Increased income from irrigation can make more expensive but nutritious foods like eggs, meat, and dairy more affordable. However, access to markets is critical to selling irrigated produce, but also to buying nutritious food at the market. Improved postharvest management could increase the production of perishable foods such as animal feed, fruits, and vegetables.

Who has control over income influences spending decisions and women’s empowerment appears to benefit children. Women need to be empowered through education and income-generating activities in ways that reduce their time burden to ensure the important roles of child feeding and care.

Irrigation investments can be promoted to improve nutrition, in addition to their potential to increase income or close the food gap. However, this requires striking a balance between the production of animal feed, staple foods (cereals), and non-staple foods (e.g. fruits) through irrigation.

Finally, irrigation projects should be designed to meet multiple objectives, including economic goals, equity goals, such as women’s empowerment, and food security and nutrition goals. A well-designed irrigation intervention has the potential to put food missing from the diet (back) on the table; enabling farmers to practice the excellent nutritional advice they receive from the health extension workers.

A rich tradition of community and partnership – The Multiple Uses of Water in Northern Ghana

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In Ghana, it is estimated that 17% of rural households rely on piped-borne water as their main water supply. Those without access to piped water rely on water sources such as communal boreholes, rivers, and unprotected wells for multiple livelihood activities or purposes. For instance, rural communities in Ghana may use a communal borehole to water their livestock and provide households with clean water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning.

In addition, water from these communal sources is shared between community households. Communities use the tradition of water sharing between households to keep them resilient during the long dry season and reinforce and inform how communities use water for multiple purposes.

Rural communities in Ghana may use a communal borehole to water their livestock and provide households with clean water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning

In October 2022 and January 2023, I spent time with smallholder farmers in irrigating and non-irrigating communities in Northern Ghana. My visit aimed to understand how the water-sharing tradition between households informed how communities used water for multiple purposes.

In sitting down with community members in the irrigating and non-irrigating communities, households will first tell you that, above all else, “Water is life” and “is a gift from God.” Households will tell you they share water because “we are all one people.” This point is crucial as it highlights that water use in these communities is steeped in a rich tradition of community and partnership.

Secondly, you soon realize that a vibrant patchwork of local governance systems and structures, such as water user groups and committees, is used to manage the local water resources in irrigating and non-irrigating communities. There are user groups for surface water sources such as rivers and small dams and groundwater sources such as communal boreholes. Water user groups in these communities serve as a mechanism for decision-making, resolving disputes, and appealing to higher levels of government.   

Yet, while there are similarities, there are also distinct differences between communities that can irrigate in the dry season and those that cannot. For instance, in this irrigating community, there existed one large dam and many communal boreholes. For multiple water use, the community used water from the dam for productive purposes, like dry season gardening, livestock, and cottage industry, such as shea butter processing, and used water from the boreholes for domestic purposes, such as drinking, cooking, and cleaning. 

For the irrigating community, having multiple water sources for multiple uses across seasons meant that they could diversify their productive activities and spend less time and energy having to find clean water sources. As one irrigator noted, “we now worry less about having enough water in the dry season and now have more resources to invest back into our household and community.”

In contrast, the non-irrigating community did not have a surface water source they could rely on for productive activities. Therefore, they had to rely on community boreholes and a shallow river that dries up when the rains stopped. In this community, there were no livestock and little to no productive activities beyond the rainy season. Unlike the irrigating community, the non-irrigators had fewer livelihood options and faced increased pressure on their groundwater resources.  

For non-irrigators, the lack of sustainable water sources in the dry season saw the community have fewer productive opportunities and found households investing more energy and time searching for a clean water source.

Interventions around multiple water use should take a bottom-up approach and start by working with communities to develop targeted solutions that fit their local situation, customs, and traditions

The empirical literature will tell you that to support irrigating and non-irrigating communities using water for multiple purposes,  a top-down, policy-heavy approach to developing and scaling multiple-use water services and systems for rural communities is needed.

Based on my time in the field, a top-down approach would be counterintuitive. Instead, interventions around multiple water use should take a bottom-up approach and start by working with communities to develop targeted solutions that fit their local situation, customs, and traditions. Revaluing the approach to multiple water use would create opportunities that support those for whom public policies consistently fail and are the most vulnerable to climate shocks and stress.

A glimpse of hope in the role of private sector engagement for scaling irrigation innovation bundles in Ethiopia

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by Muluken Elias Adamseged and Dagmawi Melaku, International Water Management Institute (IWMI)

Agriculture is strategically a key sector for Ethiopia, engaging more than two-thirds of the labour force and is predominantly dominated by smallholder farmers and rainfed systems. Given the high climate uncertainty, enriching irrigation access to farmers is at the core development agenda of governmental and non-governmental organizations. While there is limited adoption of irrigation technologies among smallholders, most of the small or household level irrigators are using water pumps that run, mostly, on fossil fuels or electricity. In recent years, the high price increase and unreliable supply of fossil fuels were additional factors encouraging the search for an alternative solution.

These conditions were a part of the background for The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) to co-design and develop innovations with stakeholders. Thus, with funding from the Feed for The Future Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILLSI). IWMI introduced the solar pump for irrigation purposes for smallholder farmers. To pave the way for backward and forward linkages, the solar-powered innovation is bundled with other innovations including client credit assessment, Pay-As-You go, muti-stakeholder collaboration platforms, and tailored business models. In Ethiopia, ILSSI has been working with stakeholders from the ministries, research centres, universities, and private sectors to enhance learning and decision making on Farmer Led Irrigation development (FLID). The MSD series, through A multi-stakeholder dialogue in 2020; A multi-stakeholder dialogue 2021, has helped to identify the challenges, opportunities, solutions and approaches to scale innovations that support FLID.

Mr. Lemi Assefa-Program Manager at Rensys Engineering Plc. (Photo-Yonas Qoricho)

Throughout this process, private sector actors have played a key role. The results of the 6th MSD in 2023 showed the importance of irrigation innovation bundling, and so the demand for it has been created among the intervention areas. One of the private sector agents reported that he is regularly receiving requests from farmers in the intervention areas. A farmer recently asked the agent “Gashe (sir) can you please bring me the same product (solar pump) like my neighbour Gedamu Moges?” The frequent requests show the good perception and value created among the community, yet also indicate the low capacity of the private sector to reach and fulfil such local demands.

What we have observed from the 6th MSD and in the overall project results is a glimpse of hope in the role of the private sectors for agriculture development in Ethiopia. However, the number of companies in the private sector, specifically engaged in irrigated agriculture in any form, be it technology and input provision, agronomic advisory support schemes and related services, are few in numbers. Given the proportion of small holder farmers in Ethiopia (more than 90%), the private sector’s engagement needs to be incentivized and developed.

Mr. Abraham Endrias-Managing Director, Lersha.(Photo – Yonas Qoricho)

Thus, exploring possibilities on how to keep the momentum of the private sector need to be on the agenda of the stakeholders. Five key aspects on how to engage and develop the private sector for further enhancement of the sector in FLID are as follows:

  1. Supporting the private sectors and their niche initiatives: in the early stages of piloting and implementing the innovations, the private sector has been supported by financial, technical, and non-technical areas. Given the novelty of the innovation, providing some shelter was one of the reasons for the successful implementation . These have enabled them to strengthen their own capacities, develop inclusive business models and minimize risks, and promote their products and services. If not for the support, the idea could have died at the niche level.
  2. Strengthening the multi-stakeholder dialogue: the Agricultural Water Management Task Force (AWM-TF) has co-organised the MSD for the last few years. The platform has provided opportunities for the private sector to understand who the key stakeholders are and how to cooperate with them, and to discuss the key challenges the sector faced. Thus, sustaining the MSD and creating related platforms could benefit the sector.
  3. Improve the institutional setting: the private sector and their initiatives are encountered with institutional, financial, and technical challenges. The delayed grant of Letter of Credit for importing, the lengthy importing process and complex customs services, have been key challenges for implementation. Even after the tax exemption of the solar pumps was rolled out, the implementation and lack of clear guidelines have hampered the supply of the technology for the farmers.
  4. Facilitate access to finance: the private sector has not been able to mobilize and facilitate access to loans for the farmers. One of the reasons for this is due to lack of rules and regulation to lend money for solar pumps. Microfinance institutions are reluctant to lend money for small holder farmers.
  5. Strengthening public private partnership (PPP): the PPP strategy for irrigation sub sector that is currently under development by AWM-TF and partners will be crucial to structure and facilitate partnerships for FLID. During the 6th MSD, stakeholders expressed interest to enrich the strategy with further inputs and dialogues with private actors in irrigated value chains.
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