From the field

Enhancing Groundwater Governance through Experimental Games in Ghana

July 7, 2023 by abbey.kunkle

by Emmanuel Obuobie*, Claudia Ringer*, Hagar El Didi*, Wei Zhang*

Thousands of farmers living in the Keta and Anloga districts of Ghana depend on groundwater from the Keta strip for producing vegetables and other food crops for consumption and income generation. The Keta strip lies between a salty lagoon (Keta lagoon) and the sea (Gulf of Guinea), along the East Coast of Ghana. The two districts fall within the dry equatorial climatic region, which is the driest part of Ghana. The main occupation of the people are farming, fishing and trading. Farming is done all year-round, using groundwater from shallow unconfined aquifers within depths of about 15 m. Crops grown include carrots, tomatoes, pepper, okra, onion, lettuce, potatoes, maize and cassava. Farming in the Keta and Anloga districts is impossible without irrigation because of relatively low rainfall (about 800 mm), a long dry season of about six months, long dry spells within the rainfall season, high annual evaporation (about 1800 mm) and sandy soils.

An irrigator drawing water from a well to irrigate her crops at Whuti – Anloga district, Ghana (Photo credit: Emmanuel Obuobie)

Farmers in the two districts abstract groundwater through large diameter open concrete lined wells and small diameter (2-4 inches) piped tube wells, to irrigate farm sizes between 0.05 and 1 hectares. The groundwater is recharged mainly from rainfall. The recharge rate is relatively high (estimated at about 20% of the annual rainfall). Some of the key challenges that groundwater irrigators are dealing with are declining groundwater tables, insufficient freshwater during the peak of the dry season (February/March) due to low groundwater tables and high evaporation, and saltwater intrusion; all of these impede crop productivity. Most farmers cope by reducing the volume of water used for irrigation but others cope by developing multiple wells for abstracting more water and relocating wells with salty water to locations with freshwater. There are no functioning institutions that support farmer collaboration on water resources; instead farmers operate as individuals. This brings into question the sustainability of groundwater irrigation in the Keta and Anloga districts.

Source: Figure 3 in: Duku et al. (2022).

In December 2022, an intervention in the form of an experimental groundwater game, followed by community discussions of lessons learnt from the game was implemented in 10 communities in the two districts, to improve awareness of the importance of resource governance, with the expectation of enhancing collective action toward more sustainable use and management of groundwater resources, and ultimately to sustain the livelihoods of farmers. The activity was funded by USAID through the Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) project and implemented by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), CSIR-Water Research Institute, the University for Development Studies and the University of Ghana.

In each of the communities, three sets of groundwater games were played by groups of men and women irrigators separately. Each group accessed water from a common source, cultivated crops of their choice and farmers made individual decisions on farm size and number of plots cultivated. It was assumed that only the farm size cultivated had an effect on the volume of groundwater used for simplicity. In the first round of the game, farmers made decisions on farm size without discussing with other members of their group (no communication); in the second round, farmers discussed cultivation ideas with their group members but made individual decision on cultivation. In the last round of the game, farmers communicated within their groups and elected to make rules to govern the farm size cultivated by each farmer and by extension the groundwater resources withdrawn, with sanctions for those farmers who did not comply with the rules (communication with group-elected rules). The game was followed with a debriefing session that included the larger community. The group discussion focused on the sharing of lessons from the groundwater game and farmers’ practical experiences on groundwater management.

Three months after implementing the intervention, an endline survey was conducted in the ten communities and the data were compared to that of a baseline survey, which was conducted prior to the game intervention, to evaluate the effects of the intervention on the communities understanding and management of groundwater resources.

In the baseline survey preceding the games, farmers indicated that, there were no rules or arrangements for managing groundwater in their communities. Irrigators could cultivate as many plots as they wanted and have as many groundwater wells as they could afford, with little or no consideration for the long-term sustainability of the groundwater and their livelihoods. Generally, communities held the belief that groundwater could not be permanently depleted and therefore were strongly opposed to making rules to regulate when and how much to abstract.

Community debriefing meeting at Woe – Anloga district, Ghana (Photo credit: Emmanuel Obuobie)

Preliminary results from the endline survey show limited actions in response to the intervention at the community level, such as the establishment of institutions or rules on how much groundwater to abstract and when. However, there was an observed improvement in the attendance of community meetings for discussing community development issues including on water, health and hygiene; and improvement in participation in communal labour for cleaning communal facilities and places such as markets, beaches and drains. In addition, communities recalled learning through the game about the depletable nature of groundwater and the need to manage groundwater use. They understood the importance of adopting practices to help manage water use. Community beliefs shifted away from rejection of rules to govern groundwater use (at baseline) to understanding the need for collective action to manage the shared resource, though some communities still maintained that rules would be difficult to establish and enforce. Comparatively, several changes could be observed at the individual level. Actions reported by individual farmers included a reduction in plot size or number of farm plots cultivated, a reduction in number of wells on individual farms; a reduction in cropping intensity, and a reduction in the number of hours irrigated for every round of irrigation.

It might well take several more months or even years to see the full impact of the groundwater intervention. This is not surprising given how long it takes to change long-held understandings and beliefs of how groundwater systems operate. One thing is clear however: we cannot ensure sustainable groundwater-supported livelihoods without changing mental models and the way we develop and manage groundwater in this part of Ghana or anywhere else in the world.

Senior Research Scientist, Water Research Institute – Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana ↩︎
Director, Natural Resources and Resilience – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA ↩︎
Senior Research Analyst; Natural Resources and Resilience – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA ↩︎
Senior Research Fellow; Natural Resources and Resilience – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), USA ↩︎

A rich tradition of community and partnership – The Multiple Uses of Water in Northern Ghana

March 21, 2023 by abbey.kunkle

In Ghana, it is estimated that 17% of rural households rely on piped-borne water as their main water supply. Those without access to piped water rely on water sources such as communal boreholes, rivers, and unprotected wells for multiple livelihood activities or purposes. For instance, rural communities in Ghana may use a communal borehole to water their livestock and provide households with clean water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning.

In addition, water from these communal sources is shared between community households. Communities use the tradition of water sharing between households to keep them resilient during the long dry season and reinforce and inform how communities use water for multiple purposes.

Rural communities in Ghana may use a communal borehole to water their livestock and provide households with clean water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning

In October 2022 and January 2023, I spent time with smallholder farmers in irrigating and non-irrigating communities in Northern Ghana. My visit aimed to understand how the water-sharing tradition between households informed how communities used water for multiple purposes.

In sitting down with community members in the irrigating and non-irrigating communities, households will first tell you that, above all else, “Water is life” and “is a gift from God.” Households will tell you they share water because “we are all one people.” This point is crucial as it highlights that water use in these communities is steeped in a rich tradition of community and partnership.

Secondly, you soon realize that a vibrant patchwork of local governance systems and structures, such as water user groups and committees, is used to manage the local water resources in irrigating and non-irrigating communities. There are user groups for surface water sources such as rivers and small dams and groundwater sources such as communal boreholes. Water user groups in these communities serve as a mechanism for decision-making, resolving disputes, and appealing to higher levels of government.

Yet, while there are similarities, there are also distinct differences between communities that can irrigate in the dry season and those that cannot. For instance, in this irrigating community, there existed one large dam and many communal boreholes. For multiple water use, the community used water from the dam for productive purposes, like dry season gardening, livestock, and cottage industry, such as shea butter processing, and used water from the boreholes for domestic purposes, such as drinking, cooking, and cleaning.

For the irrigating community, having multiple water sources for multiple uses across seasons meant that they could diversify their productive activities and spend less time and energy having to find clean water sources. As one irrigator noted, “we now worry less about having enough water in the dry season and now have more resources to invest back into our household and community.”

In contrast, the non-irrigating community did not have a surface water source they could rely on for productive activities. Therefore, they had to rely on community boreholes and a shallow river that dries up when the rains stopped. In this community, there were no livestock and little to no productive activities beyond the rainy season. Unlike the irrigating community, the non-irrigators had fewer livelihood options and faced increased pressure on their groundwater resources.

For non-irrigators, the lack of sustainable water sources in the dry season saw the community have fewer productive opportunities and found households investing more energy and time searching for a clean water source.

Interventions around multiple water use should take a bottom-up approach and start by working with communities to develop targeted solutions that fit their local situation, customs, and traditions

The empirical literature will tell you that to support irrigating and non-irrigating communities using water for multiple purposes, a top-down, policy-heavy approach to developing and scaling multiple-use water services and systems for rural communities is needed.

Based on my time in the field, a top-down approach would be counterintuitive. Instead, interventions around multiple water use should take a bottom-up approach and start by working with communities to develop targeted solutions that fit their local situation, customs, and traditions. Revaluing the approach to multiple water use would create opportunities that support those for whom public policies consistently fail and are the most vulnerable to climate shocks and stress.

Experience sharing among cooperatives: The case of Genet Lerobit dairy cooperative

January 10, 2023 by abbey.kunkle

The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is undertaking research with three dairy cooperatives (Genet Lerobit, Habebo and Mishigida Etta). Genet Lerobit is in Amhara region, Northern Ethiopia and Habebo and Mishigida Etta are located in SNNPR. As much as there are similarities between these two locations, there are also variations in cultural practices, crops grown, livestock management and feeding practices. Moreover, the three coops vary in their level of growth and capacity, knowledge and experience in cooperative management and input-out markets.

Therefore, ILRI arranged experience sharing programs among these cooperatives with the aim of fostering their capacities through cross-learning and adopting new working practices and technologies that go well with the respective environments.

The visit

A six-day visit was arranged for 5 cooperative management teams of Genet Lerobit cooperative, from Bahir Dar zuria district, to the two cooperatives in SNNPR during the last week of November 2022. The visit was designed to share the indigenous and acquired knowledge and practices of Habebo and Mishigida Etta dairy cooperatives in green production, fodder marketing, milk handling, processing, and backyard and homestead management by farmers..

The Bahir Dar zuria District visiting team at Habebo Dairy Coperative (SNNPRS)

Visit to green fodder markets

Green fodder market is not well practiced in Bahir Dar zuria district, whereas there is a vibrant green fodder market in Durame, Kedida Gamela district where Mishigida Etta dairy cooperative is located. Farmers around the zonal town and neighboring villages bring in fresh forages (mainly desho grass, Napier grass, native grasses, sugar cane tops,) and seasonal feed like teff straw, maize stover and wheat straw) on the backs of donkeys, mule carts, human heads and backs every day. The buyers are livestock producers mainly from urban areas and farmers from villages who have animals but little or no forage plots.

Lemo unique house construction

Housing of Lemo community is unique in the region (and probably in the country too). The grass -thatched roof (keeps the house cool during the day and warm in the night), wood-rope interwoven ceiling, wood walls tightened with rope from enset or false banana (a drought tolerant and multi-purpose plant unique to the SNNPR), flower decorated homestead gives a unique pleasure to the residents and to anyone who visits the families.

*Lemo Housing style (Photo Credit: Fikadu Tessema)*

Backyard and homestead management

At Jawe kebele of Lemo woreda individual farmers’ homesteads and backyards are fully vegetated and decorated. Ato Adinew Ayele, one of the many model farmers in Jawe owns crossbred dairy cows, which are well fed and produce milk for family consumption and income generation for the household. Adinew always seeks new innovations and works closely with development and research projects. His backyard is full of improved forages and other native forage varieties. He uses solar pumps to lift water from hand dug wells and irrigate his fodder and vegetable plots.

Bekelech is an innovative woman farmer in Jawe. Like that of Adinew, her backyard is also full of forages and vegetables and fruit spices, etc. Bekelech entertains many visitors due to her presentable and popular farm management and enthusiasm.

Visit to Mishigida Etta and Habebo dairy cooperatives – both supported by the ILSSI project

Habebo dairy cooperative was established in 2008 with 18 male and 30 female members and started operation by collecting about 5 liters of fluid milk. Nowadays, it has about 223 members and collects about 500 liters of fluid milk daily. Mishgida Etta dairy cooperative was established in 2011 with 50 female members. Currently, it has about 250 female members and collects about 100–150 liters of milk daily .

Habebo dairy cooperative produces cream, butter, buttermilk and cottage cheese for consumers in Hossana city and surrounding areas. It also produces yoghurt (Ergo) from buttermilk increasing income for the cooperative. Mishgida Etta produces yoghurt (Ergo), butter and cheese in their dairy product shop and new buildings which were built by the cooperative with the support of ILSSI project and stakeholders.

*Habebo dairy cooperative visit Lemo District*

Visitors’ reflections

Green fodder marketing is a new practice for Bahir Dar zuria farmers, and the visitors appreciated the potential of such a market to change the lives of farmers. They noted that such markets would create job opportunities for farmers who want to sell forage as a cash crop. Visitors were encouraged by the competitive price (ETB 6.60/kg of fresh matter) at which green fodder is sold in the local market and vowed to promote it in their locality. They said, “When we go back home, we will teach fellow cooperative members how important it is to start an open fodder market, and link buyers and sellers.”

“We thank ILRI/ILSSI project for making this visit happen and giving us a chance to learn from our fellow farmers.”

Visitors stated that such markets would also create income generating opportunities for dairy producers who do not have land to grow forages and to landowners who can grow forages but have little or no animals.

They noted that both cooperatives are well organized and functioning properly, and appreciated the valuable information, saying,

IWMI connects locals for collaborative efforts to expand solar irrigation in Ethiopia

January 9, 2023 by abbey.kunkle

With the support of the USAID-sponsored the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) and Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (AfricaRISING), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) organized a series of workshops, engaging stakeholders to facilitate the scaling of solar-based irrigation in different parts of Ethiopia.

Undertaken in partnership with Rensys Engineering Plc. and in collaboration with local government, the first workshops were organized in September 2022. Contributions from 155 participants helped to establish a better understanding of farmer market segments for solar innovation bundles at Wereta (near Bahir Dar) and Ziway. The workshops engaged farmers and others in the field to discuss land and water access, financial potential for investment, and farmer technology preferences.

In December 2022, IWMI and partners followed up with a workshop on ‘Linking demand and supply for irrigation technologies and services’ in Bahir Dar, Amhara region to develop demand-supply linkages for solar power-based for irrigation. Farmers, NGOs and government officials suggested ways to strengthen market linkages, especially to bridge the severe information and capacity gaps. Farmers expressed concerns about reliability and accessibility of services, recommending that suppliers work with existing local groups trained in irrigation and expand their services to solar technologies. As a starting point for information exchange, an ICT-based message platform was created with Rensys sales agents, extension agents, interested NGO staff, farmers, and young entrepreneurs.

Arranging ways for farmers to see how different solar pump models operate and perform in the field remains the most effective way to connect with potential clients. Rensys Engineering demonstrated the Lorentz Ps2-100 solar pump for 96 participants from NGOs, government offices of agriculture, energy and irrigation, farmer organizations, and private irrigation value chain actors. Over thirty farmers requested a follow up for purchasing a pump from Rensys, while MEDA (Mennonite Development Association) ordered Rainmaker Kubaw solar pumps for one of its projects.

Farmers look to solar irrigation: Building the irrigation equipment supply market in Ghana

January 9, 2023 by abbey.kunkle

November-December 2022

Will smallholder farmers invest in solar pumps to expand irrigated farming in Ghana? Studies point to the potential for solar irrigation in Ghana to enable farmers to adapt to climate change and to increase farmer incomes through various business models. But as farmers increasingly shift to self-supply in irrigation, the market is under the spotlight. While the current market system is fragmented and laden with risks, USAID-supported projects are building the foundation for a resilient irrigation equipment market. This is particularly urgent, given the onset of weather changes and increasing demand for irrigated produce.

The response by farmers and private sector actors is encouraging. Over 530 people attended workshops on solar irrigation in Jirapa (Upper West) and Tamale (Northern), while another 609 people attended workshops in Nandom (Upper West), Nalerigu (Northeast) and Bole (Savannah). Participants are primarily farmers but include companies and entrepreneurs, government, research institutions and NGOs. The workshops – aimed at ‘strengthening the sale and service networks for solar irrigation market linkages’ – were organized by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and Pumptech Ghana in November 2022 and co-funded by the USAID-sponsored Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) and Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (AfricaRISING) projects.

Under the projects, IWMI enables market-based scaling of solar-based irrigation bundles through local demand-supply linkage workshops that facilitate direct linkages across private, public and research sectors. Jointly, participants identify financial opportunities for farmers’ investment in solar irrigation technologies, products, and services, and establish networks and collaborations for business opportunities. Discussions also highlighted the need for local distribution centers in rural districts and targeted training of extension officers and private service agents on solar-powered pumps. Rural and community banks discussed approaches to improve access to financial services for farmers to acquire solar technologies on credit.

Demonstrations for solar-powered irrigation pumps (SPIPs) at each workshop and in communities across 9 locations in the Upper West, Northeast, Northern and Savannah Regions led 223 potential clients to explore purchasing solar pumps from Pumptech. With more such activities to build robust sales and service networks, especially for solar irrigation, farmers can begin to look at the sun in a whole new light.